Showing posts with label cannabis. Show all posts
Showing posts with label cannabis. Show all posts

Saturday, May 10, 2025

Real World Evidence and Cannabis Psychosis

 


As readers of this blog know – I am not high on cannabis.  That is based on my experience as an acute care psychiatrist and an addiction psychiatrist. That real world experience was associated with treating hundreds of people for exacerbations of preexisting psychotic disorders as well as seeing psychosis develop in people with no risk factors of family history of psychosis. A significant number of thise people need ongoing treatment for psychosis to stay out of the hospital.  Their course is complicated by cannabis use disorder.  Contrary to the hype – addiction can occur to cannabis with all of the associated problems.

Rhetoric is always a significant factor in the United States, especially when there are large sums of money at stake. Depending on who you read the $38.5B cannabis industry is part of the $1.8T health and wellness industry compared with the total pharmaceutical industry value of $602B.  For twenty years we heard about medical cannabis as though it was a miracle drug.  The first medical application of cannabis may have occurred in the second century AD when a famous Chinese physician mixed it with wine and used it as an analgesic.  The use of cannabis as an intoxicant preceded this medical use by about 800 years (1).  The rise of Taoism, Chinese culture, and the availability of alcohol and opium are thought to have limited its widespread use for that purpose. Hemp was also cultivated as a seed crop but that was supplanted by more effective seed crops much like medical use.  The 20th century medical rhetoric always ignored that history. I attended many seminars where there was a discussion of the endogenous cannabinoid system as a backdrop to talking about medical applications.  In my home state there was a tortured effort to invent a system parallel to the FDA to approve medical cannabis for certain indications. I use the word tortured because the evidence including collected data was very thin to non-existent.  All of this was an obvious prelude to legalization of cannabis and being able to market it as an intoxicant. The psychiatric side effects and the fact that any intoxicant has major problems associated with it – were minimized. Common minimization rhetoric included the ideas that alcohol was much more dangerous, that cannabis-based crimes were discriminatory, and that the War on Drugs was a failure. There was also the idea that the United States was lagging behind the rest of the world in legalization, when it is only fully legal in 9 countries in the world.

That brings me to a recent paper characterizing the real-world evidence of antipsychotic use to treat cannabis induced psychosis.  I follow two of the authors of this paper (Tiihonen and Taipale) because they are experts in designing observational studies based on registry data that typically does not exist in the US.  In this case they selected a cohort of 1772 patient with a diagnosis of cannabis induced psychosis (CIP) from Swedish registry and insurance data between January 2006 and December 2021.  Exclusion criteria included any previous diagnosis of substance induced psychosis, schizophrenia, or bipolar disorder.  Medication data was collected according to the Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical (ATC) classification.  Medication exposure to antipsychotic and antimanic medications was based on exposures as prescription refills and less than 5 exposures was not counted as an exposure.  Additional psychiatric medications – antidepressants, medications for ADHD and addictions, benzodiazepines and related drugs were also extracted.  The resulting medication list from the supplementary information is listed below along with the effect on the primary outcome (rehospitalization for CIP) by Hazard Ratio.

Events

Users

Person-years

aHR (95%CI)

Antipsychotics

No exposure

1892

1754

10617,19

Reference

Levomepromazine

30

131

49,64

0.92 (0.59-1.44)

Perphenazine

NA

NA

NA

NA

Perphenazine LAI

9

26

28,58

0.55 (0.25-1.22)

Haloperidol

35

125

69,09

1.01 (0.66-1.54)

Haloperidol LAI

14

22

18,37

1.14 (0.61-2.15)

Flupentixol

5

22

20,42

0.88 (0.31-2.50)

Flupentixol LAI

NA

NA

NA

NA

Zuclopenthixol

10

41

41,29

0.71 (0.32-1.61)

Zuclopenthixol LAI

26

47

45,7

0.77 (0.47-1.26)

Clozapine

28

54

119,25

0.56 (0.34-0.90)

Olanzapine

404

1013

1031,96

0.82 (0.70-0.96)

Olanzapine LAI

13

57

50,1

0.29 (0.16-0.55)

Quetiapine

91

385

405,41

0.94 (0.69-1.27)

Risperidone

72

261

210,27

0.91 (0.66-1.26)

Risperidone LAI

18

40

45,46

0.55 (0.28-1.10)

Aripiprazole

62

331

283,83

0.61 (0.43-0.88)

Aripiprazole LAI

15

69

83,45

0.26 (0.14-0.49)

Paliperidone LAI 1M

32

74

63,03

0.69 (0.45-1.08)

Paliperidone LAI 3M

6

8

10,39

0.43 (0.09-2.03)

AP Polytherapy

423

675

727,23

0.75 (0.64-0.89)

Cariprazine

5

19

9,32

20.88 (1.99-218.64)

Paliperidone oral

5

42

14,8

1.38 (0.48-3.95)

Other SG oral

NA

NA

NA

NA

Other FG oral

NA

NA

NA

NA

ADHD medications

No exposure

3127

1767

13312,32

Reference

Dexamfetamine

NA

NA

NA

NA

Methylphenidate

30

206

307,89

0.67 (0.41-1.11)

Modafinil

NA

NA

NA

NA

Atomoxetine

16

85

59,31

0.64 (0.32-1.26)

Lisdexamphetamine

27

168

223,14

1.10 (0.61-1.98)

ADHD polytherapy

NA

NA

NA

NA

SUD medications

No exposure

3145

1767

13749,18

Reference

Disulfiram

25

79

41,09

0.94 (0.48-1.82)

Acamprosate

NA

NA

NA

NA

Naltrexone

10

60

36,73

1.39 (0.55-3.50)

Buprenorphine

15

24

55,87

0.83 (0.27-2.56)

Methadone

11

17

68,81

3.05 (0.80-11.69)

Multiple SUD drugs

NA

NA

NA

NA

Antidepressants

No exposure

2704

1742

11565,26

Reference

Clomipramine

5

24

30,15

0.57 (0.15-2.12)

Amitriptyline

NA

NA

NA

NA

Nortriptyline

NA

NA

NA

NA

Fluoxetine

22

118

164,43

0.75 (0.41-1.34)

Citalopram

15

109

114,94

0.56 (0.29-1.10)

Paroxetine

12

30

50,26

1.60 (0.67-3.77)

Sertraline

104

447

538,89

0.75 (0.56-1.00)

Fluvoxamine

NA

NA

NA

NA

Escitalopram

60

249

277,43

1.03 (0.71-1.49)

Moclobemide

NA

NA

NA

NA

Mianserin

NA

NA

NA

NA

Mirtazapine

122

449

387,9

0.89 (0.69-1.15)

Bupropion

13

155

86,75

0.94 (0.48-1.82)

Venlafaxine

48

170

217,67

1.15 (0.75-1.76)

Reboxetine

NA

NA

NA

NA

Duloxetine

25

91

101,98

1.30 (0.75-2.27)

Agomelatine

<5

20

9,38

5.28 (0.41-67.42)

Vortioxetine

6

48

36,58

0.67 (0.26-1.73)

Rare antidepressants

NA

NA

NA

NA

Antidepressant polytherapy

65

364

364,42

0.93 (0.62-1.39)

Benzodiazepines and related drugs

No exposure

2817

1755

12756,76

Reference

Any benzodiazepine or related drug

390

732

1231,3

1.19 (1.01-1.40)

Mood stabilizers

No exposure

3020

1768

13280,77

Reference

Carbamazepine

11

41

42,23

0.93 (0.44-1.99)

Valproic acid

89

168

206,7

0.93 (0.70-1.25)

Lamotrigine

15

115

159,81

0.68 (0.34-1.37)

Topiramate

NA

NA

NA

NA

Lithium

60

107

217,85

0.98 (0.67-1.43)

Mood stabilizer polytherapy

8

66

64,51

0.46 (0.20-1.07)

 

The data was analyzed using a stratified Cox regression model.  The advantage to this model is that the assumption that hazard ratios are constant over time are restricted to the stratum occupied by each individual so that hazard ratios between strata may differ based on genetics, age and other factors but they are constant in each stratum.

Of the final sample 84.7% were men and the mean age of onset of the first diagnosis was 26.6 (± 8) years.  About half of the sample had work income at baseline but 5.4% had 90 days sick leave from work in the year before the study and 6.9% were on disability pensions.  

In terms of the primary rehospitalization endpoint – any antipsychotic use was associated with a decreased risk of readmission (aHR 0.75; 95%CI 0.67–0.84).  Some of the antipsychotics associated with less risk like aripiprazole, aripriprazole LAI, olanzapine, olanzapine LAI, and clozapine clozapine,  Any antipsychotic use also reduced the risk of secondary endpoints including hospitalization due to a medical problem (aHR 0.58; 95% CI 0.38–0.89) and hospital admission caused by a substance use disorder (aHR 0.78; 95% CI 0.71–0.87).

The authors include a Forest plot of antipsychotic medications and risk of relapse (see Fig 1.)  The SGA drugs olanzapine, clozapine, and aripiprazole had the best results in both LAI and oral short acting forms.  FGA drugs (pooled) and paliperidone, risperidone, and quetiapine (all SGAs) did not have a statistically significant result.

The authors conclude that AP drugs – especially the LAI version may be effective in preventing rehospitalization following an episode of cannabis induced psychosis – a condition that as a high risk of relapse.  The reduction in risk was about 72%.  Medication effectiveness mirrored effectiveness noted in psychotic disorders for clozapine.  FGA were less effective than noted in studies of first episode psychosis without cannabis use and this may be due to the small numbers being treated with these medications.  They speculate that the effectiveness of aripiprazole may be due to partial dopamine agonist activity with improved cognition and less craving.  They cite one of their previous papers suggesting that the combination of clozapine and aripiprazole may be the best to prevent relapse prevention in schizophrenia and substance use (3).     

In terms of limitations, the authors cite the small subject numbers in some of the studied groups.  They also lacked data on ongoing cannabis use if rehospitalization did not occur. It is always interesting to consider what an ideal randomized controlled clinical trial of this problem would look like.  At the minimum it would involve structured interviews for psychiatric diagnoses, detailed structured interviews on substance use, and possible toxicology screens and measures of medication adherence for oral medications (typically pill counts).  That may be a fundable grant at some point – but the current political atmosphere in the US suggests otherwise. This is a significant strength of the studies from this group.  As I noted in a recent post it also reflects the clinical experience of acute care psychiatrists in the US where substance use is a significant complication of care.   

 This is an excellent observational study of how cannabis use and cannabis use disorder complicates the lives of people. Obviously not everyone who uses cannabis is at risk for these complications – but if they occur and result in hospitalization and the prescription of medications for treating an ongoing psychosis that results in major life disruption and disability.  The less obvious disruption is how both psychosis and cannabis in can impair the insight of the affected individual. Psychosis generally leads to a conscious state where the affected individual cannot accurately assess how they are doing in the environment and take corrective action. With a cannabis use disorder, an individual can experience reinforced use by the biological properties of THC, and continue to use the substance despite negative consequences.  People with those impairments have a much harder time stopping cannabis use often despite very negative consequences.  That pattern of behavior is always a good reason to avoid intoxicants of any kind.  

George Dawson, MD, DFAPA

 

References:

1:  Booth M.  Cannabis – A History. New York. Picador, 2003: 23.

2:  Mustonen A, Taipale H, Denissoff A, Ellilä V, Di Forti M, Tanskanen A, Mittendorfer-Rutz E, Tiihonen J, Niemelä S. Real-world effectiveness of antipsychotic medication in relapse prevention after cannabis-induced psychosis. Br J Psychiatry. 2025 May 6:1-7. doi: 10.1192/bjp.2025.72. Epub ahead of print. PMID: 40326094.

3:  Tiihonen J, Taipale H, Mehtälä J, Vattulainen P, Correll CU, Tanskanen A. Association of Antipsychotic Polypharmacy vs Monotherapy With Psychiatric Rehospitalization Among Adults With Schizophrenia. JAMA Psychiatry. 2019 May 1;76(5):499-507. doi: 10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2018.4320. PMID: 30785608; PMCID: PMC6495354.

Graphic Credit:

The table and figure used in the above post is taken directly from the authors Supplementary data and original paper per the CC license (reference 2):

Open Access article, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution licence (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted re-use, distribution and reproduction, provided the original article is properly cited.