As readers of this blog know – I am not high on cannabis. That is based on my experience as an acute care psychiatrist and an addiction psychiatrist. That real world experience was associated with treating hundreds of people for exacerbations of preexisting psychotic disorders as well as seeing psychosis develop in people with no risk factors of family history of psychosis. A significant number of thise people need ongoing treatment for psychosis to stay out of the hospital. Their course is complicated by cannabis use disorder. Contrary to the hype – addiction can occur to cannabis with all of the associated problems.
Rhetoric is always a significant factor in the United
States, especially when there are large sums of money at stake. Depending on
who you read the $38.5B cannabis industry is part of the $1.8T health and
wellness industry compared with the total pharmaceutical industry value of
$602B. For twenty years we heard about medical
cannabis as though it was a miracle drug.
The first medical application of cannabis may have occurred in the
second century AD when a famous Chinese physician mixed it with wine and used
it as an analgesic. The use of cannabis
as an intoxicant preceded this medical use by about 800 years (1). The rise of Taoism, Chinese culture, and the
availability of alcohol and opium are thought to have limited its widespread
use for that purpose. Hemp was also cultivated as a seed crop but that was
supplanted by more effective seed crops much like medical use. The 20th century medical rhetoric
always ignored that history. I attended many seminars where there was a
discussion of the endogenous cannabinoid system as a backdrop to talking about
medical applications. In my home state
there was a tortured effort to invent a system parallel to the FDA to approve
medical cannabis for certain indications. I use the word tortured because the
evidence including collected data was very thin to non-existent. All of this was an obvious prelude to
legalization of cannabis and being able to market it as an intoxicant. The
psychiatric side effects and the fact that any intoxicant has major problems
associated with it – were minimized. Common minimization rhetoric included the
ideas that alcohol was much more dangerous, that cannabis-based crimes were
discriminatory, and that the War on Drugs was a failure. There was also
the idea that the United States was lagging behind the rest of the world in
legalization, when it is only fully legal in 9
countries in the world.
That brings me to a recent paper characterizing the real-world
evidence of antipsychotic use to treat cannabis induced psychosis. I follow two of the authors of this paper
(Tiihonen and Taipale) because they are experts in designing observational
studies based on registry data that typically does not exist in the US. In this case they selected a cohort of 1772
patient with a diagnosis of cannabis induced psychosis (CIP) from Swedish
registry and insurance data between January 2006 and December 2021. Exclusion criteria included any previous
diagnosis of substance induced psychosis, schizophrenia, or bipolar
disorder. Medication data was collected
according to the Anatomical
Therapeutic Chemical (ATC) classification.
Medication exposure to antipsychotic and antimanic medications was based
on exposures as prescription refills and less than 5 exposures was not counted
as an exposure. Additional psychiatric
medications – antidepressants, medications for ADHD and addictions,
benzodiazepines and related drugs were also extracted. The resulting medication list from the
supplementary information is listed below along with the effect on the primary
outcome (rehospitalization for CIP) by Hazard Ratio.
Events |
Users |
Person-years |
aHR (95%CI) |
|
Antipsychotics |
||||
No exposure |
1892 |
1754 |
10617,19 |
Reference |
Levomepromazine |
30 |
131 |
49,64 |
0.92 (0.59-1.44) |
Perphenazine |
NA |
NA |
NA |
NA |
Perphenazine LAI |
9 |
26 |
28,58 |
0.55
(0.25-1.22) |
Haloperidol |
35 |
125 |
69,09 |
1.01
(0.66-1.54) |
Haloperidol LAI |
14 |
22 |
18,37 |
1.14 (0.61-2.15) |
Flupentixol |
5 |
22 |
20,42 |
0.88 (0.31-2.50) |
Flupentixol LAI |
NA |
NA |
NA |
NA |
Zuclopenthixol |
10 |
41 |
41,29 |
0.71 (0.32-1.61) |
Zuclopenthixol LAI |
26 |
47 |
45,7 |
0.77 (0.47-1.26) |
Clozapine |
28 |
54 |
119,25 |
0.56 (0.34-0.90) |
Olanzapine |
404 |
1013 |
1031,96 |
0.82 (0.70-0.96) |
Olanzapine LAI |
13 |
57 |
50,1 |
0.29 (0.16-0.55) |
Quetiapine |
91 |
385 |
405,41 |
0.94 (0.69-1.27) |
Risperidone |
72 |
261 |
210,27 |
0.91 (0.66-1.26) |
Risperidone LAI |
18 |
40 |
45,46 |
0.55 (0.28-1.10) |
Aripiprazole |
62 |
331 |
283,83 |
0.61 (0.43-0.88) |
Aripiprazole LAI |
15 |
69 |
83,45 |
0.26 (0.14-0.49) |
Paliperidone LAI 1M |
32 |
74 |
63,03 |
0.69 (0.45-1.08) |
Paliperidone LAI 3M |
6 |
8 |
10,39 |
0.43 (0.09-2.03) |
AP Polytherapy |
423 |
675 |
727,23 |
0.75 (0.64-0.89) |
Cariprazine |
5 |
19 |
9,32 |
20.88 (1.99-218.64) |
Paliperidone oral |
5 |
42 |
14,8 |
1.38 (0.48-3.95) |
Other SG oral |
NA |
NA |
NA |
NA |
Other FG oral |
NA |
NA |
NA |
NA |
ADHD medications |
||||
No exposure |
3127 |
1767 |
13312,32 |
Reference |
Dexamfetamine |
NA |
NA |
NA |
NA |
Methylphenidate |
30 |
206 |
307,89 |
0.67 (0.41-1.11) |
Modafinil |
NA |
NA |
NA |
NA |
Atomoxetine |
16 |
85 |
59,31 |
0.64 (0.32-1.26) |
Lisdexamphetamine |
27 |
168 |
223,14 |
1.10 (0.61-1.98) |
ADHD polytherapy |
NA |
NA |
NA |
NA |
SUD medications |
||||
No exposure |
3145 |
1767 |
13749,18 |
Reference |
Disulfiram |
25 |
79 |
41,09 |
0.94 (0.48-1.82) |
Acamprosate |
NA |
NA |
NA |
NA |
Naltrexone |
10 |
60 |
36,73 |
1.39 (0.55-3.50) |
Buprenorphine |
15 |
24 |
55,87 |
0.83 (0.27-2.56) |
Methadone |
11 |
17 |
68,81 |
3.05 (0.80-11.69) |
Multiple SUD drugs |
NA |
NA |
NA |
NA |
Antidepressants |
||||
No exposure |
2704 |
1742 |
11565,26 |
Reference |
Clomipramine |
5 |
24 |
30,15 |
0.57 (0.15-2.12) |
Amitriptyline |
NA |
NA |
NA |
NA |
Nortriptyline |
NA |
NA |
NA |
NA |
Fluoxetine |
22 |
118 |
164,43 |
0.75 (0.41-1.34) |
Citalopram |
15 |
109 |
114,94 |
0.56 (0.29-1.10) |
Paroxetine |
12 |
30 |
50,26 |
1.60 (0.67-3.77) |
Sertraline |
104 |
447 |
538,89 |
0.75 (0.56-1.00) |
Fluvoxamine |
NA |
NA |
NA |
NA |
Escitalopram |
60 |
249 |
277,43 |
1.03 (0.71-1.49) |
Moclobemide |
NA |
NA |
NA |
NA |
Mianserin |
NA |
NA |
NA |
NA |
Mirtazapine |
122 |
449 |
387,9 |
0.89 (0.69-1.15) |
Bupropion |
13 |
155 |
86,75 |
0.94 (0.48-1.82) |
Venlafaxine |
48 |
170 |
217,67 |
1.15 (0.75-1.76) |
Reboxetine |
NA |
NA |
NA |
NA |
Duloxetine |
25 |
91 |
101,98 |
1.30 (0.75-2.27) |
Agomelatine |
<5 |
20 |
9,38 |
5.28 (0.41-67.42) |
Vortioxetine |
6 |
48 |
36,58 |
0.67 (0.26-1.73) |
Rare antidepressants |
NA |
NA |
NA |
NA |
Antidepressant polytherapy |
65 |
364 |
364,42 |
0.93 (0.62-1.39) |
Benzodiazepines and related drugs |
||||
No exposure |
2817 |
1755 |
12756,76 |
Reference |
Any benzodiazepine or related
drug |
390 |
732 |
1231,3 |
1.19 (1.01-1.40) |
Mood stabilizers |
||||
No exposure |
3020 |
1768 |
13280,77 |
Reference |
Carbamazepine |
11 |
41 |
42,23 |
0.93 (0.44-1.99) |
Valproic acid |
89 |
168 |
206,7 |
0.93 (0.70-1.25) |
Lamotrigine |
15 |
115 |
159,81 |
0.68 (0.34-1.37) |
Topiramate |
NA |
NA |
NA |
NA |
Lithium |
60 |
107 |
217,85 |
0.98 (0.67-1.43) |
Mood stabilizer polytherapy |
8 |
66 |
64,51 |
0.46 (0.20-1.07) |
The data was analyzed using a stratified Cox regression
model. The advantage to this model is
that the assumption that hazard ratios are constant over time are restricted to
the stratum occupied by each individual so that hazard ratios between strata
may differ based on genetics, age and other factors but they are constant in
each stratum.
Of the final sample 84.7% were men and the mean age of onset
of the first diagnosis was 26.6 (± 8) years.
About half of the sample had work income at baseline but 5.4% had 90
days sick leave from work in the year before the study and 6.9% were on
disability pensions.
In terms of the primary rehospitalization endpoint – any
antipsychotic use was associated with a decreased risk of readmission (aHR
0.75; 95%CI 0.67–0.84). Some of the
antipsychotics associated with less risk like aripiprazole, aripriprazole LAI, olanzapine,
olanzapine LAI, and clozapine clozapine,
Any antipsychotic use also reduced the risk of secondary endpoints including
hospitalization due to a medical problem (aHR 0.58; 95% CI 0.38–0.89) and hospital
admission caused by a substance use disorder (aHR 0.78; 95% CI 0.71–0.87).
The authors include a Forest plot of antipsychotic
medications and risk of relapse (see Fig 1.)
The SGA drugs olanzapine, clozapine, and aripiprazole had the best results
in both LAI and oral short acting forms.
FGA drugs (pooled) and paliperidone, risperidone, and quetiapine (all
SGAs) did not have a statistically significant result.
The authors conclude that AP drugs – especially the LAI
version may be effective in preventing rehospitalization following an episode
of cannabis induced psychosis – a condition that as a high risk of relapse. The reduction in risk was about 72%. Medication effectiveness mirrored
effectiveness noted in psychotic disorders for clozapine. FGA were less effective than noted in studies
of first episode psychosis without cannabis use and this may be due to the
small numbers being treated with these medications. They speculate that the effectiveness of aripiprazole
may be due to partial dopamine agonist activity with improved cognition and
less craving. They cite one of their
previous papers suggesting that the combination of clozapine and aripiprazole
may be the best to prevent relapse prevention in schizophrenia and substance
use (3).
In terms of limitations, the authors cite the small subject
numbers in some of the studied groups.
They also lacked data on ongoing cannabis use if rehospitalization did
not occur. It is always interesting to consider what an ideal randomized
controlled clinical trial of this problem would look like. At the minimum it would involve structured
interviews for psychiatric diagnoses, detailed structured interviews on
substance use, and possible toxicology screens and measures of medication
adherence for oral medications (typically pill counts). That may be a fundable grant at some point –
but the current political atmosphere in the US suggests otherwise. This is a
significant strength of the studies from this group. As I noted in a recent post it also reflects
the clinical experience of acute care psychiatrists in the US where substance
use is a significant complication of care.
George Dawson, MD, DFAPA
References:
1: Booth M. Cannabis – A History. New York. Picador, 2003:
23.
2: Mustonen A,
Taipale H, Denissoff A, Ellilä V, Di Forti M, Tanskanen A, Mittendorfer-Rutz E,
Tiihonen J, Niemelä S. Real-world effectiveness of antipsychotic medication in
relapse prevention after cannabis-induced psychosis. Br J Psychiatry. 2025 May
6:1-7. doi: 10.1192/bjp.2025.72. Epub ahead of print. PMID: 40326094.
3: Tiihonen J,
Taipale H, Mehtälä J, Vattulainen P, Correll CU, Tanskanen A. Association of
Antipsychotic Polypharmacy vs Monotherapy With Psychiatric Rehospitalization
Among Adults With Schizophrenia. JAMA Psychiatry. 2019 May 1;76(5):499-507.
doi: 10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2018.4320. PMID: 30785608; PMCID: PMC6495354.
Graphic Credit:
The table and figure used in the above post is taken
directly from the authors Supplementary data and original paper per the CC
license (reference 2):
Open Access article, distributed under the terms of the Creative
Commons Attribution licence (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/),
which permits unrestricted re-use, distribution and reproduction, provided the
original article is properly cited.