Persecutory Delusions, Psychiatric Treatment, and Violence Prevention

For 23 years I ran an acute care inpatient service where the main focus was preventing violence and suicide.  That is the default function of inpatient units these days and it has been decided  by businesses and governments rather than organized psychiatry.  Organized psychiatry used to take an interest in quality care in hospitals but it has largely been abandoned to the hospitals and organizations that run them.  The regulatory bodies for inpatient care tend to focus on a number of parameters that are irrelevant to quality care.  With such a fragmented regulatory and administrative approach, the focus on quality of care depends solely on the personnel on each unit and how well they work together as a team.  The majority of patients are admitted these days because of concerns about aggressive behavior and suicide.  In my experience, good inpatient teams are highly successful in assessing and treating those problems.

One of the key treatment interventions is determining the people with the highest risk potential for the most intensive treatment interventions.  The treatment outcomes in terms of averting aggressive and suicidal behaviors are generally good.  Given the relatively rare occurrence of aggression or suicide post discharge the actual power of the treatment intervention is unknown.  The potential severity of outcomes precludes any placebo controlled clinical trials.  No human subjects committee would authorize a placebo arm and since many patients are on involuntary status or court holds.  No probate court judge would go along with it either.

The March 2014 edition of the American Journal of Psychiatry has some the most most extraordinary content I have ever noticed in that publication.  Among the articles is a paper called "Association of Violence With Emergence of Persecutory Delusions in Untreated Schizophrenia".  It adds significantly to the literature on psychosis and violence.  The study focuses on the United Kingdom Prisoner Cohort Study and it looked at risk factors for future violence in prisoners who were incarcerated for a violent crime after they were released.  It is a study that could be done on patients who were acutely hospitalized and released because of the naturalistic design and use of nonviolent participants as a comparison group.  That authors were interested in looking at whether the presence of psychosis predicted future violence and if there was any specific pattern of symptoms.  They were also interested in looking at the issue of whether or not treatment was helpful.

The sample consisted of 1,717 prisoner screened at baseline and 967 followed up (787 men and 180 women).  Selection was based on incarceration for at least 2 years for a violent crime and release date within 12 months of the start of the study.  All participants were given a number of structured research assessments to establish diagnosis.  At follow up, the diagnoses of the patients in the study included 94 meeting diagnostic criteria for schizophrenia, 102 for drug induced psychosis, and 29 for delusional disorder.  Only the subgroup with schizophrenia scored higher on psychopathy scores.  Violent behavior at follow up was established by self-report and a national computer police database that classified violence against persons.  According to that database 22.9% of participants were violent between release and follow up (mean 39.2 weeks).

 In terms of the relevant results, the delusional disorder and drug induced psychosis subgroups were no more likely than the the participants without psychosis to be violent at follow up.  Persons with untreated schizophrenia were more than three times as likely to be violent that the non-psychotic participants at follow up.  In that group those with persecutory delusions were more likely to be violent than those with other symptoms of psychosis.  The authors briefly review the indirect evidence supporting their findings including treatment non-adherence and risk of violence, risk of violence at first presentation of treatment rather than subsequent episodes, and psychosis as a risk factor for violence.  They point out that to their knowledge this is the only study of violent recidivism in prisoners that looks at the issue of psychosis as a risk factor.

The actual treatment provided in this case was critical.  In terms of violence prevention any treatment provided in prison only or in prison and on release was effective in preventing violence.  They point out that identification of more people needing treatment by their study methodology may have led to more active treatment of study participants.  They quote data on that fact that in prisons in the UK only about 1/4 of prisoners with severe mental illnesses are identified by mental health teams with that specific function and that of those identified only 13% are accepted into case management.  Overall in the UK less than 1/4 of prisoners who screen positive for psychosis are given a mental health appointment at the time of discharge.

The accompanying editorial by Large is interesting in reviewing the issue of screening versus not screening populations for psychosis and whether that prevent violence.  Several studies have concluded that "risk assessment is insufficiently sensitive to provide a basis for protection of the public."    Without looking at all of the references (I would expect to find significant flaws) the issue is really not a screening issue.  This study happens to appear like it is a screening, but the diagnostic approach is probably much more vigorous than most assessments in correctional settings.  The issue is that you have a person sitting in front of you telling you that they have persecutory delusions and are at risk for continued violence secondary to those delusions.  There is also a significant subgroup who are at personal risk for self harm related to these delusions that the authors either did not find or they did not comment on.  The Large commentary also focuses on antipsychotic medication as the treatment for psychosis and in the UK psychotherapy is also a treatment modality.  He makes the observation that treatment across the entire spectrum is important in that less treatment in the currently treat group will also result in more violence.

This study is useful in the US for several reasons.  County jails have become the largest psychiatric hospitals in the United States largely as a result of government and business policy.  Inpatient units may be useful for acute violence but there is an uneasy relationship with county jails.  Hospital policy may result in suicidal and acutely aggressive psychotic patient being treated in jail settings and using methods that would be seen as completely inappropriate in a medical or psychiatric setting.  Psychiatric follow up in jail settings is often fragmented and it is not uncommon to see medical treatment started and stopped based on the availability of medical staff or prescription medications.  I would consider the UK to be much more enlightened with regard to mental health policy than the US and to have more medically based resources for anyone with a psychosis diagnosis.  I can't imagine follow up numbers from American jails being any better than they are in the UK.

All of this creates a problem for the person with psychosis, persecutory delusions, and violent behavior.  The focus of much of the literature seems to be protecting the public from them but when you are their treating psychiatrist the arguments you are making to them is to protect them from their delusional thoughts.  That will not happen in a rationed, carved out environment that has shifted progressively more care for the severely mentally ill to correctional settings.  The other interesting  cultural phenomenon is that there is no coverage of this study or similar studies in the press.  Their bias seems to be to look at the sensational results of psychosis associated violent crime,  suggest that more treatment might be needed, attribute causation to being in the wrong place at the wrong time, and suggest that we all need to move on (lurch forward?) toward the next catastrophe.

This study provides a platform for a better approach to public policy and a more patient centric approach to violence prevention.

George Dawson, MD, DFAPA    


1: Keers R, Ullrich S, Destavola BL, Coid JW. Association of violence with emergence of persecutory delusions in untreated schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry. 2014 Mar 1;171(3):332-9. doi: 10.1176/appi.ajp.2013.13010134. PubMed PMID: 24220644.

2:  Large MM. Treatment of psychosis and risk assessment for violence. Am J Psychiatry. 2014 Mar 1;171(3):256-8. doi: 10.1176/appi.ajp.2013.13111479. PubMed PMID: 24585326.




 



    

The News Media and Mental Illness - A Continued Problem

Although the media can certainly pump up the volume on trivia like the DSM-5 their coverage of the critical day-to-day issues involving mental illness continue to be lacking in both depth and breadth.  It is weak.  From a depth perspective I will point to an article about a man convicted of shooting at people on the I-96 freeway in southeastern Michigan.  His reason for the shootings?  He thought he was getting coded messages from the Detroit Tigers to shoot people.  He also believed that military helicopters were hovering above his home and that his home contained "advanced technologies" that caused his daughter to develop a skin disease and his wife have a miscarriage.  The article contains a layman's description of a not guilty by reason of mental disorder defense and that defense was never advanced based on a judges ruling.  As a psychiatrist familiar with these criteria there is an overwhelming bias to convict people who are mentally ill and mentally compromised.  That is why the defense is generally a failure.  In this case the defendant did not have the opportunity to present that defense because as the article explains:

"Diminished capacity is a claim that says a defendant was unable to form specific intent required to commit a crime under the law by reason of mental illness, and as a result, the defendant’s responsibility in the alleged crime is diminished. The judge earlier ruled that the defense could not make this argument because it failed to give proper notice of a defense of insanity."

In other portions of the article we learn that he has been treated for an unnamed mental illness since 2009.  The symptoms are described as delusions that respond to medication and the delusions associated with the shooting incidents are currently in remission.  When the defendant is asked about whether he knew that firing a gun into an automobile might hurt someone.  His response was "In hindsight - yes".  I have not seen the final sentencing after a no contest plea but he faces up to 12 years in prison on firearms and assault charges after they decided to drop a terrorism charge.

From a breadth of coverage perspective, I will suggest a second article that points out the critical shortage in acute care inpatient beds with the capacity to address severe mental illness and aggressive behavior.  In those case Virginia State Senator Creigh Deeds discusses an incident where his son stabbed him and subsequently shot himself.  After the incident Senator Deeds states that the read his son's diary and it said that if he killed his father he would go directly to heaven.  In his taped discussion he talks about all of the relevant points that I try to cover here involving stigma, a lack of respect for providers, and diversion of resources to more areas of care that are viewed as more prestigious - like Cardiology.  Amazingly, Virginia apparently has a rule where you must be released from the emergency department if they can't find a psychiatric bed within 6 hours.  Based on his proposed reforms it doesn't seem like there has to be much of an effort to look elsewhere.  The sequence of events has been managed care companies shutting down psychiatric bed capacity by defunding it.  That is followed by states deciding to act like managed care companies and either shutting down their capacity or getting completely out of the field.  The end result is a pool of people who cycle in and out of short stays on inpatient units to overcrowded emergency departments to the street and back again.  Many permanently drop out of that cycle when they become homeless or go to America's newest mental hospitals - the county jail.  This is a problem everywhere in the United States.  I used to qualify that by saying it was a problem in areas of high managed care penetration.  Today that is everywhere.

Apart from the isolated pieces that are written with the obvious intent to get somebody a Pulitzer Prize, these stories are typical of what you see in the press.  The first article lacks basic information on what mental illness is and how decision making in a delusional state bears no resemblance to answering questions "in hindsight" after the delusions are gone.  It lacks psychiatric perspective.  Any newspaper reporter probably has access to acute care psychiatrists to tell them about those problems.  In that situation reporters always want a "diagnosis" of the person in the news and psychiatrists cannot speculate on that without having examined the patient and getting their release for that information.  But they can provide a rich perspective based on their clinical experience treating thousands of similar problems and the effect of delusions on a person's conscious state.  They can also provide an opinion on the mental illness defense in this country as well as the state of psychiatric services to treat the problem.  I know that I would be happy to provide those details.  At the minimum somebody in charge of journalism school curricula needs to examine how reporters can come out and ignore all of those facts.  I might even suggest objective criteria for coverage as at least 5 times the words used to cover the least relevant mental illness story that year.  I would give the least relevant story this year as anything having to do with the DSM-5.  On that basis a lot of additional writing needs to be done on these two stories.

In the case of Senator Deeds, his analysis of the problem in this brief soundbite is spot on.  He needs a broader platform to advocate for his plan and support against the people who are opposing him and the 6 hour rule in state of Virginia.  He should work the the American Psychiatric Association, receive their support, and have access to their social media venues.  The APA should come out with their own solution to this problem.  I cannot think of anything more absurd and more consistent with a managed business approach to treating severe health problems than this 6 hour rule.  At some point the patient and their severe problem is totally meaningless relative to business concerns.  And Senator Deeds is right.  That doesn't happen with any other medical problem in the emergency department.

It only happens with mental illness.

George Dawson, MD, DFAPA

What Is Really Going On At The Minnesota Security Hospital?

The Minneapolis StarTribune posted a recent story about the Minnesota Security Hospital (MSH) on December 27, 2013 that was updated today.  The article raises concerns about patient treatment and safety at this facility both for patients and staff.  It should be read by everyone with an interest in how state mental hospitals function.  It is of particular interest to Minnesota residents who may have a relative being treated at this facility but also anyone concerned about the image of the state and how it treats residents with severe mental illnesses.  From a policy standpoint it should be an issue of great importance for both local psychiatric societies and the American Psychiatric Association (APA).

Let me preface my remarks by saying that I have no inside knowledge of what is occurring at the MSH beyond what I read in the papers.   The first concern is about the information base for the article and who is interpreting that information.  That is contained in the fourth paragraph of the article at the very end of that paragraph:

"Nearly two years after the hospital's professional psychiatric staff departed in a mass resignation, the state still has not hired a full complement of psychiatrists, documents show.  Basic medical record-keeping has been neglected, employees have been placed in danger and patients have been discharged with inadequate safeguards, according to internal memos, federal records, and agency files reviewed by the Star Tribune."

The problem here is that there is nobody at the Star Tribune who is an expert in the treatment of patients with severe mental illness and aggression.  The second problem is that there is a significant conflict of interest anytime a journalist has access to clinical material with a potential sensational interpretation.  From my experience journalists will make that interpretation out of ignorance or for the purpose of enhancing the dramatic impact of the story.  In this article the names of two patients are disclosed.  Journalists are not confidentiality bound to not disclose the names of patients and there may be some public documents with the names of these patients.  My experience with journalists has been that they want to talk to actual patients with real names, and really do not understand the problems with that.  There are always many potential weaknesses when considering a journalistic source.

There is a precedent for the review of confidential hospital records by expert unbiased reviewers and that was the Medicare Peer Review Organizations (PRO) system.  In that process, physicians who were experts in the field in question were rigorously screened for conflicts of interest.  As an example, they could not have any affiliation however peripheral with the hospital or clinic being reviewed.  The compensation for reviewing the records was trivial and you could not make a living at it.  Reviewers were expected to be practicing medicine full time and not be an administrator.  As a reviewer, I reviewed tens of thousands of pages of hospital records - many from state hospitals for both quality problems and utilization problems.  A newspaper reporter looking at a patchwork of records, memos, and files from multiple sources is hardly an adequate standard to draw any conclusions.  A reporter can make it seem like the hospital is a "bad" place for restraining people or in this case failing to restrain a person.

A potentially rich source of information is the hospital's former medical director - Dr. Jennifer Service.  She has one quote in the article about how the MSH is "broken", but it provides no details.  My speculation is that there is nobody who had a better front row seat to what happened than Dr. Service and possibly the previous medical director.  In the treatment of severe mental illness and aggression the medical director or clinical director has a critical role in making sure that there are no administrative factors that adversely affect the treatment team or their ability to provide care and a safe environment.  A common mistake is that administration believes it can effect change and they do not pay close enough attention to the impact on the clinicians providing care.  When treating aggressive people any environmental change like that can result in increasing aggression and chaos in the treatment environment.  The Legislative Auditor's Report suggests several areas where the therapeutic neutrality of the environment and staff cohesion were problematic.  During 23 years of conducting team meetings, my experience was that psychiatrists are an integral part of the team and should be the team member most experienced in team dynamics, countertransference, and approaches to violence prevention.  There is no indication that occurred on teams at the MSH and in fact, participation is described as marginal.

There are other potential conflicts of interest here that potentially bias the story.  Minnesota Department of Human Services apparently administers the place.  In this case Commissioner Anne Barry talks about the goal of increasing the likelihood of discharge by making community living environments more available.  Since DHS also administers all of those environments in the state it should be a relatively easy task.  Why is it not being done?  Are there people who realistically cannot be discharged without recreating a hospital environment for them in the community?  In the cases where that has happened have there been more adverse outcomes?  Are those environments more humane than the hospital environment where the patient was initially?  The Deputy Commissioner talks about accountability, but DHS seems like one of the most opaque state agencies out there.  Lately they seem to have moved into the area of micromanagement of the treatment providers especially around the issue of aggressive behavior.  Are the administrators of DHS responsible for the failed programs at the MSH?  Commissioner Barry talks about a more "therapeutic environment".  Is she qualified to determine what that is?  And finally the Legislative Auditor's Report alludes to a report by previous consultants.  Who were these consultants and where is that report?

Another good illustration of how conflicts of interest potentially bias the StarTribune article was the issue of accusations of maltreatment by professional staff.   The first is an allegation that a psychiatrist "committed maltreatment" by threatening an uncooperative patient with electroconvulsive treatment.  DHS investigators concluded that this happened but their finding was overturned by the DHS Inspector General.  The State Ombudsman for Mental Health and Developmental Disabilities apparently believed it happened and made a request for the DHS Commissioner to reconsider the finding.  The Inspector referred the matter to the Board of Medical Practice.  In the second case, 2 nurses were accused of maltreatment.  From the way the article is written it appears to be related to the incident where the patient was "slamming his head repeatedly into a concrete wall" and they were unable to get an order to physically restrain the patient.  The nurses were fined and reported to the nursing board.  Based on the incidents of maltreatment and another incident where a patient did not receive timely assessment for a stroke the DHS Commissioner extended the hospital's probation through 2014.  There are many problems with employees paying the price for chaos in the system.  Administrators often do not recognize the professional obligations of the staff.  I have personally seen quality psychiatric staff paralyzed by indecision that was brought about by administrative mandate or personnel problems.  The other problem here is that DHS appears to be the administrator, investigator and judicial process rolled into one.  We have a number of political appointees (DHS, Ombudsman, Board of Medical Practice) charged with deciding the professional fate of a physician who seems to be practicing in the worst of possible scenarios.  It should not be too surprising that MSH is unable to recruit and hire psychiatric staff.

The Legislative Auditor's Report is probably a better source of information than the newspaper report, but it has the same lack of input from experts.  It is useful from the perspective of bureaucratic information on the details that can be counted like the number of psychiatric contacts, number of hours of therapeutic contact, number of staff injuries for a certain period of time, etc.  One of the areas that is most interesting to me as a psychiatrist is the frequency of patient contact by psychiatrists.  The report gives an example of a recent census of 321 patients.  It provides an exhibit showing that from a policy standpoint the suggested frequencies of contact are monthly, quarterly, or semi-annually.  These frequencies are interestingly lower than the frequency of contact in some 19th century German asylums.  I can recall that Binswanger made a point of seeing all 200 patients in his asylum every week.  The report said that of the 321 patients in the study 45% had been seen in the previous month, an additional 24% 1-2 months earlier, 17% 2-3 months before and 4% greater than 3 months before.  Going from a full complement of eight psychiatrists to a total of two psychiatrists and 1 nurse practitioner is an obvious problem in terms of contact.  Actual contact with psychiatrist is an insufficient metric for treating patients and other quality measures need to be developed.  

If the article and the Legislative Auditor's report are even partially accurate with regard to facts, the glaring problem here appears to be that there is nobody in charge who knows how to run a hospital that treats people with severe mental illness and problems with aggression.  It is probably more correct to say that at this point we have not been presented with any positive evidence that there is a person in charge with the necessary qualifications.  The information presented in the StarTribune article does not suggest a clash of cultures.  There is no psychiatric hospital culture that I am aware of where there is confusion about whether or not a patient should be allowed to injure themselves.  The second problem is that this hospital needs psychiatrists who are trained to treat severe mental illness and aggression.  They do not need to be forensic psychiatrists, but they do need expertise in treatment of severe mental illness.  Forensic psychiatrists are basically needed to perform specific evaluations of criminal responsibility but the priority here is described as patient and staff safety.  The people needed in this situation currently work in a number of acute care and community settings.  They are very comfortable with the treatment of major psychiatric disorders and the associated medical comorbidity.  It is safe to say that they enjoy working with these problems and talking with the people who have them.  They are also sensitive to the needs of their co-workers and can establish the necessary environment of mutual trust and neutrality needed to succeed.

There may not be anyone around who remembers that Minnesota has solved a similar problem in the past.  The year was 1990 and there were significant problems staffing the major state hospital in the system - Anoka Metro Regional Treatment Center.  At that time, a Medical Director who was recently out of training was hired and he hired several colleagues from the same generation.  They were all enthusiastic and interested in providing quality care.  The state offered them competitive salaries.  Within a very short period of time a cohesive staff developed and they became a favored training site for medical students.  Treatment at the state hospital improved dramatically and several of the psychiatrists in that cohort went on to become leaders in the state in the provision of psychiatric services to patients with severe mental illness.

That still seems like a good idea today.


George Dawson, MD, DFAPA

Paul Mcenroe.  Minnesota Security Hospital: Staff In Crisis Spreads Turmoil.  StarTribune, December 27, 2013.

Office of the Legislative Auditor.  Evaluation Report: State-Operated Human Services.  February 2013.

Additional Clinical Note 1:  Looking back over my post it is clear that I do not answer the question that is the title.  Like most people I am speculating based on an imperfect data set.  The main difference is that I am also speculating as an expert based on what needs to happen to provide the safest scientifically based treatment for people who are mentally ill, aggressive, and may have failed most if not all of the available treatments.  I also recall that some past state hospital problems were resolved that has not been brought up in the discussion so far.

The Real Lesson of the George Zimmerman Trial

The latest reality based media event has been the George Zimmerman trial.  Zimmerman shot and killed Trayvon Martin and most media outlets have reviewed the details of the case including courtroom reenactments of the physical confrontation that resulted in the shooting.  The secondary story is how the public will react to a verdict.  A tertiary story that is building at this time is media criticism - has the media gone to far and should there be cameras in the courtroom?

My point is not to reconstruct the arguments of case but to speculate about how unnecessary violent confrontations may occur in the first place.  They do occur frequently and the majority of those confrontations are not covered by the press.  You might read about them in your local newspaper or if you are a health professional you have probably encountered the victims or the combatants.  In my experience, the level of violence and the resulting injuries are always surprising.  People are punched in the face or head and die instantly.  People are struck or pushed and strike their heads on the way to the ground and die.  People are severely beaten on the street for either a trivial reason or the victims of gang violence and die or sustain disabling injuries.  Weapons are used against friends and family.  It is as if people think that you can engage in Hollywood style mayhem and in the end only the bad guys suffer.  The idea that the human body, especially the brain is extremely vulnerable and needs to be protected seems to be suspended.  But that in itself is not the root cause of the problem.

Violence and aggression as a means to resolve interpersonal conflict has been with the human race since prehistoric times.  I have found that Keeley offers the best historical account and analysis at the level of conflicting villages, city-states, and nations.  His original intent was to dispel the notion of the noble savage or the peaceful prehistoric man living in an idyllic situation.  He ends up showing that warfare has been a remarkably constant feature across time.    From his text:

"According to the most extreme views, war is an inherent feature of human existence, a constant curse of all social life, or (in guise of a real war) a perversion of human sociability created by the centralized political structures of states and civilizations.  In fact, cross cultural research on warfare has established that although some societies that did not engage in war or did so extremely rarely, the overwhelming majority of known societies (90-95%) have been involved in this activity." (p 27-28)

In reviewing some of the smaller pacifist pastoral societies,  Keeley cites their low population density as well as their strong moral distaste for violence (p 31) as a likely reason that the Semai could return to a peaceful existence after being recruited by the British to fight against Communist insurgents in the 1950s.  In his chapter "Crying Havoc-The Question of Causes", Keeley takes a fairly detailed look at how war starts as a combination of psychological and political factors starting off with a conflict between two villages where one village owed the other village a debt.  He demonstrates how that that conflict escalates to the point of violence and death for several reasons.  He cites prestige, theft,  adultery, and poaching as common reasons for conflicts with aggression resulting in death.  He concludes that the specific information from an archaeological standpoint is generally difficult to discern and considers broader contexts.

I think the implicit strength of Keeley's work is that he does have a lot of information on warfare and conflict in small and large societies and through all of that information the common thread is that humans resort to violence as a way to resolve conflict, even in situations that are relatively trivial and could easily be resolved by other means.  I  have made that observation repeatedly in clinical situations and the only exceptions are where the violence is driven by a psychiatric disorder.  It is also obvious that learning other strategies can definitely occur often times for the worst possible reasons.  An example is an aggressive man with antisocial personality disorder who typically gets what he wants by threatening or harming people.  If he survives long enough, he may get to the point where that is a losing tactic and he becomes less aggressive with age.  A more common example is the case of people referred to anger control groups through their contact with law enforcement or the courts.  Many find that the strategies they learn in these groups are very effective.

So what is the real lesson in this case?  The real lesson is that this violent confrontation did not need to occur.  All of the energy being expended in the debate about who was the victim and whether or not legal penalties should be assigned misses that point.  It should be fairly obvious that each side can construct a detailed narrative of what happened and how that should affect the outcome.  My courtroom experience has left me with the impression that it is possible that neither narrative is an entirely accurate representation of what happened.  Who would want their future decided by those circumstances?

All of the sensational coverage by the press misses even more widely.   Solving conflicts between people by aggression and homicide is a strategy of primitive man.  It arose out of a time before there was a legal system or designated police.  It came from a time where there was no recognition that every person is unique and society may be less if that unique person is lost.  Until there is the realization that violent confrontations are a toxic byproduct of of our prehistoric ancestors and that they are no longer necessary - there will continue to be unnecessary tragedies.  Society is currently complex and aggression will never be a final solution.  Coming up with better solutions at this point is the next logical step.

George Dawson, MD, DFAPA

Lawrence H. Keeley. War Before Civilization. Oxford University Press, 1997

"Preventing Violence: Any Thoughts?"

The title of this post may look familiar because it was the title of a recent topic on the ShrinkRap blog.  That is why I put it in quotes.  I put in a post consistent with some the posts and articles I have written over the past couple of years on this topic.  I know that violence, especially violence associated with mental illness can be prevented.  It is one of the obvious jobs of psychiatrists and one of the dimensions that psychiatrists are supposed to assess on every one of their evaluations.  It was my job in acute care setting for over 25 years and during that time I have assessed and treated all forms of violence and suicidal behavior.  I have also talked with people after it was too late - after a homicide or suicide attempt had already occurred.

The responses to my post are instructive and I thought required a longer response than the brief back and forth on another blog.  The arguments against me are basically:

1.  You not only can't prevent violence but you are arrogant for suggesting it.
2.  You really aren't interested in violence prevention but you are a cog machine of the police state and inpatient care is basically an extension of that.
3.  You can treat aggressive people in an inpatient setting basically by oversedating them.
4.   People who are mentally ill who have problems with violence and aggression aren't stigmatized any more than people with mental illness who are not aggressive.

These are all common arguments that I will discuss in some detail, but there is also an overarching dynamic and that is basically that psychiatrists are arrogant, inept, unskilled, add very little to the solution of this problem and should just keep quiet.  All part of the zeitgeist that people get well in spite of psychiatrists not because of psychiatrists.  Nobody would suggest that a Cardiologist with 25 years experience in treating acute cardiac conditions should not be involved in discussing public health measures to prevent acute cardiac disorders.  Don't tell anyone that you are having chest pain?  Don't call 911?  Those are equivalent arguments.  We are left with the curious situation where the psychiatrist is held to same medical level of accountability as other physicians but his/her opinion is not wanted.  Instead we can listen to Presidential candidates and the talking heads all day long  who have no training, no experience, no ideas, and they all say the same thing: "Nothing can be done."

It is also very interesting that nobody wants to address the H-bomb - my suggestion that there should be direct discussion of homicidal ideation.  Homicidal ideation and behavior can be a symptom.  There should be public education about this.  Why no discussion?  Fear of contagion?  Where does my suggestion come from?  Is anyone interested?  I guess not.  It is far easier to continue saying that nothing can be done.  The media can talk about sexual behavior all day long.  They can in some circumstances talk about suicide.  But there is no discussion of violence and aggression other than to talk about what happened and who is to blame.  That is exactly the wrong discussion when aggression is a symptom related to mental illness.

So what about the level of aggression that psychiatrists typically contain and what is the evidence that they may be successful.  Any acute care psychiatric unit that sees patients who are taken involuntarily to an emergency department sees very high levels of aggression.  That includes, threats, assaults, violent confrontations with the police, and actual homicide.  The causes of this behavior are generally reversible because they are typically treatable mental illnesses or drug addiction or intoxication states. The news media likes to use the word "antisocial personality" as a cause and it can be, but people with that problem are typically not taken to a hospital.  The police recognize their behavior as more goal oriented and they do not have signs and symptoms of mental illness.  Once the psychiatric cause of the aggression is treated the threat of aggression is significantly diminished if not resolved.

In many cases people with severe psychiatric illnesses are treated on an involuntary basis.  They are acutely symptomatic and do not recognize that their judgment is impaired.  That places them at risk for ongoing aggression or self injury.  Every state has a legal procedure for involuntary treatment based on that principle.  The idea that involuntary treatment is necessary to preserve life has been established for a long time.  Civil commitment and guardianship proceedings are recognition that treatment and in some cases emergency placement can be life saving solutions.

The environment required to contain and treat these problems is critical.  It takes a cohesive treatment team that understands that the aggressive behavior that they are seeing is a symptom of mental illness.  The meaning is much different than dealing with directed aggression by people with antisocial personalities who are intending to harm or intimidate for their own personal gain.  That understanding is critical for every verbal and nonverbal interaction with aggressive patients.  Aggression cannot be contained if the hospital is run by administrators who are not aware of the cohesion necessary to run these units and who do not depend on staff who have special knowledge in treating aggression.  All of the staff working on these units have to be confident in their approach to aggression and comfortable being in these settings all day long.

Medication is frequently misunderstood in inpatient settings.  In 25 years of practice it is still very common to hear that medication turns people into "zombies".  Comments like: "I don't want to be turned into a zombie" or "You have turned everyone into zombies" are common.  I remember the last comment very well because it was made by an observer who was looking at people who were not taking any medication.  In fact, medication is used to treat acute symptoms and in this particular case symptoms that increase the risk of aggression.  The medications typically used are not sedating.  They cannot be because frequent discussions need to occur with the patient and a plan needs to be developed to reduce the risk of aggression in the future.  An approach developed by Kroll and MacKenzie many years ago is still a good blueprint for the problem.

There is no group of people stigmatized more than those with mental illness and aggression.  It is a Hollywood stereotype but I am not going to mention the movies.  This group is also disenfranchised by advocates who are concerned that any focus on this problem will add stigma to the majority of people with mental illness who are not aggressive or violent.  There are some organizations with an interest in preventing violence and aggression, but they are rare.

At some point in future generations there may be a more enlightened approach to the primitive thoughts about human consciousness, mental illness and aggression.  For now the collective consciousness seems to be operating from a perspective that is not useful for science or public health purposes.  There is no better example than aggression as a symptom needing treatment rather than incarceration and the need to identify that symptom as early as possible.

George Dawson, MD, DFAPA

Mass shootings - How Many Will Be Tolerated?

I have been asking myself that question repeatedly for the past several decades.  I summarized the problem a couple of months ago in this blog.  In the 12 hour aftermath of the incident in Aurora, Colorado I have already seen the predictable patterns.  Condolences from the President and the First Lady.  Right wing talk radio focused on gun rights and how the liberals will predictably want to restrict access to high capacity firearms.  Those same radio personalities talking about how you can never predict when these events will happen.  They just do and they cannot be prevented. One major network encouraging viewers to tune in for more details on the "Batman Massacre." 

We can expect more of the same over the next days to weeks and I will not expect any new solutions.  Mass shootings are devastating for the families involved.  They are also significant public health problems.  There is a body of knowledge out there that has not been applied to prevent these incidents and these incidents have not been systematically studied.  The principles in the commentary statement listed below still apply.  

It is time to stop acting like this is a problem that cannot be solved.

George Dawson, MD, DFAPA

A Commentary Statement submitted to the StarTribune January 18, 2011 from the Minnesota Psychiatric Society, The Barbara Schneider Foundation, and SAVE - Suicide Awareness Voices of Education

Wartime atrocities

The recent mass murders in Afghanistan and the analysis of the events in the press highlight my contention from an earlier post that the press really does not do a good job in these situations. We can expect a continued exhaustive risk factor analysis and discussions by various pundits. The accused soldier clearly had a lot of exposure to combat stress, there is a history of traumatic brain injury, there is a possible history of substance abuse, and there are multiple psychosocial factors. So far we have seen the statements by people who knew him describing this event as completely unpredictable based on his past behavior. The debate will become more polarized as the lawyers get involved. The real truth of the matter is never stated.

What we know about these incidents is more accurately described by anthropologists than psychiatrists or psychologists. The best book written on this subject is Lawrence Keeley’s War Before Civilization.  In that book Dr. Keeley explores the contention that primitive peoples were inherently peaceful compared to modern man and a warfare that was waged was brief, fairly nonlethal, and stereotypic. In order to explore that theory, Dr. Keeley ends up writing a fairly definitive book on the anthropology of warfare. There are more lessons in that book about war and peace then you will ever hear on CNN or in the risk factor analysis that is produced in the popular media.

So what do we know about the mass murder of civilians during warfare? The first thing we know is that it is commonplace. It happens in every war and no military force despite their level of training is immune to it.  In prehistoric times, the most frequent scenario was a surprise attack on a village with the goal of killing as many inhabitants as possible. In Keeley's review, that number was generally around 10% of the population and that could have devastating consequences for a particular tribe including the complete dissolution.

Keeley also makes the point that: “Only the "rules of war," cultural expectations, and tribal or national loyalties make it possible to distinguish between legitimate warfare and atrocities.”  He gives the examples of Wounded Knee and My Lai as well as larger scale bombings of Hiroshima and Dresden.  My Lai was a highly publicized incident from my youth. It occurred during the Vietnam War when the US Army massacred hundreds of Vietnamese noncombatants – largely women, children, and old men.  In that situation, 26 soldiers were charged and only one was convicted. The convicted soldier served 3 1/2 years under house arrest.

In addition to outright killing, mutilations of bodies and the taking of body parts as trophies continue to occur in modern civilized warfare in much the same way that these practices occurred in primitive warfare.  Haley reported on a series of Vietnam veterans seen in psychotherapy and the special problems that exist in patients who have been exposed to or participated in wartime atrocities. Based on the literature at the time she suggested that the war in Vietnam resulted in a disproportionate number of atrocities.

My current final analysis of the situation is that there are important social and cultural determinants of war and the inevitable wartime atrocities. Risk factor analysis and analysis of individual biology is very unlikely to provide an explanation for what occurred. The moral, legal, and political environment has changed since Vietnam and that is obviously not a deterrent. A comparison of the final legal charges and penalties in this case with what happened in Vietnam will be instructive in terms of just how far those changes come. If there is a conviction, there will be a lot of pressure to portray the convicted soldier as very atypical and probably as a person who underwent a significant transformation of his conscious state.  There will be many theories. The idea that this transformation predictably occurs during warfare will not be discussed. I have already heard some experts talking about the thousands of soldiers who go though similar situations and seem to do just fine.

The best approach to these events is a preventive one that includes minimizing the exposure to war instead of being involved in the longest war in American history.  I don't expect that much will be said about that either.

George Dawson, MD

Lawrence H. Keeley. War Before Civilization. Oxford University Press, 1997.

Haley SA. When the patient reports atrocities. Specific treatment considerations of the Vietnam veteran. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1974 Feb;30(2):191-6.

Violence and Gunplay - Why Nobody is Informed by the Media Anymore

Mass shootings have been a phenomenon of my lifetime.  I can still clearly remember the University at Texas-Austin shootings that occurred  on August 6, 1966. A single gunman killed 16 people and wounded 32 while holed up on the observation deck of an administrative building until he was shot and killed by the police. I first read about it in Life magazine. All the pictures in those days were black and white. Some of those pictures are available online on sites such as "Top 10 School Massacres.”  I generated this timeline of mass shootings when Google still had that feature in their search engine. 

The problem of course is that the mass shootings never really  stop.  In the USA, the press is so used to them that they seem to have a protocol.  Discuss the tragedy and whether or not the perpetrator was mentally ill, had undiagnosed problems or perhaps risk factors for aggression and violence.  Discuss any heroic deeds. Make the unbelievable statement that the victims were "in the wrong place at the wrong time."  And then move on as soon as possible.  There is never a solution or even a call for finding one.  It is like everyone has resigned themselves to to repetitive cycles of gunfire and death.  It is clear that the press does not want to see it any other way.

When you are practicing psychiatry especially in emergency situations and hospitals, you need to be more practical.  When I took the oral boards exams back in 1988 and subsequently when I was an examiner, one of the key dimensions that the examiners focused on was the assessment of dangerousness.  Failing to explore that could be an exam failing mistake.  Any psychiatric inpatient unit has aggression toward self or others as one of the main reasons for admission to acute care and forensic settings.  With the recent fragmentation and rationing of psychiatric services, many people who would have been treated in hosptials are diverted to jails instead.  That led one author to describe LA County jail as the country's largest psychiatric facility.  

I have introduced the idea of looking for solutions into professional and political forums for over a decade now and it is always met with intense resistance.  Some mental health advocates are threatened by the idea that it will further stigmatize the mentally ill as violent.  Many people consider the problem to be hopeless.  Others see it as the natural product of a heavily armed society and no matter what side you are on that argument - that is where the conversation ends.

In an attempt to reframe the issue so that this impasse could possibly be breached the Minnesota Psychiatric Society partnered with the the Barbara Schneider Foundation and SAVE Minnesota in the wake of a national shooting incident to suggest alternatives.  Rather than speculate about psychiatric disorders or gun control we were focused on solutions that you can read through the link below.

The actual commentary was never published by the editor who apparently stated that there was a conflict of interest because we seemed to be fishing for research dollars.   It appears that the press can only hear the cycle of tragedy, speculation about mental health problems, and the need to move on.  The problem with that is that we continue to move on to another shooting.

George Dawson, MD


A Commentary Statement submitted to the StarTribune January 18, 2011 from the Minnesota Psychiatric Society, The Barbara Schneider Foundation, and SAVE - Suicide Awareness Voices of Education